How Does Information Processing Help Phobias

How Does Information Processing Help Phobias Phobias Treatment Print Why Is Information Processing Important for Phobias? By Lisa Fritscher Lisa Fritscher is a freelance writer and editor with a deep interest in phobias and other mental health topics. Learn about our editorial policy Lisa Fritscher Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on June 19, 2015 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on December 31, 2017 PeopleImages/E/Getty Images More in Phobias Treatment Causes Symptoms and Diagnosis Types In cognitive psychology, information processing is an approach to understanding mental processes as though they were similar to how a computer works. Helping cure phobias can in some respects be thought of as restructuring a person’s “information processing” by  replacing one set of thoughts  with  a second, more  positive  set.  ? What are the 2 Types of Information Processing? The brain is considered to be roughly equivalent to a computer, providing the necessary hardware for the computational process to take place. Our thoughts, feelings, and emotions are the actual computations. One way information processing has been conceptualized is as bottom-up or top-down in nature. In bottom-up processing, data is considered on its own merits without preconceptions or expectations. For example, In an ideal world, a jury would perform only bottom-up processing. That is, they wont use previous personal experiences or knowledge to help make a decision, they would only use the details presented to them in the case. In the real world, however, most of our thinking appears to be top-down. Our preconceived notions cause us to interpret data and perform actions (habits) according to our previous experiences. This type of processing is vital for decisions that must be made quickly. In much of our day-to-day lives, there is simply no time to analyze every possible solution to a problem using bottom-up processing.   What Does Information Processing Have to Do With Phobias? Certain aspects of information processing models of cognition may have relevance to the understanding and treatment of phobias. Like debugging a computer program, we may be able to remove faulty self-talk messages and replace them with healthier thoughts, ultimately leading to more appropriate behaviors and feelings. For example, when Jessica told her therapist about an ongoing phobia of snakes, the therapist suspected that Jessicas negative opinion and past thoughts on snakes was causing her fear. Using information processing, Jessicas therapist taught her to replace her previous thoughts about snakes with healthier beliefs, ultimately helping her reframe her mindset and get rid of her fear. More specifically, instead of associating words like scary or disgusting when thinking of a snake, Jessica learned about them and learned that they can be helpful and harmless.   Of particular interest to researchers is evaluating information processing in social phobias. Multiple external factors (top-down thinking) are involved in the development of a social phobia. For example, a person may have had a past bullying experience that caused a fear of being a group, or theyre afraid of what others may think, say, or do. Often times, it is negative thoughts, often not based on truth, that drive the phobia forward. Restructuring and rationalizing those thoughts have proved to be helpful.

Satirical Abortion Essay - 1425 Words

Good people disagree about the morality of abortion because we disagree about what defines human nature. First trimester abortions may have absolutely no moral implications whatsoever--perhaps a first trimester embryo is no more conscious than a kidney or spleen. Or they may have more serious moral implications. Our culture hasnt come to a consensus on that yet. But we know a little bit about murder, and the differences between murder and other forms of killing. And murder, in the way that we define it in all other instances, involves theintentional death of another human person. Even if we were to assume that every embryo or fetus were just as sentient and just as much of a person as any other human being, an argument that is not†¦show more content†¦Nowadays, there are many possibilities. New advances in science may cover almost any complication in pregnancy, without having to choose to kill the mother or the baby. Practically any condition can be controlled until the delivery.This picture shows one of the surgeries carried out inside the uterus. Look what the impressed photographer watched though his camera lens†¦ the tiny hand of the baby trying to grab the surgeon’s finger. * Imperfection (defect): Eugenic abortionPerfection does not mean having the right to live. People do not pass a quality control. A person can be â€Å"defective† (physically imperfect) yet still wonderful human being†¦ or be physically complete, â€Å"perfect†, but a human monster or a despicable person. This is not a reason to abort. The kindness of a human heart does no need a perfect body to develop itself completely. What would you advice a woman who is pregnant for the fifth time†¦ Whose husband suffers from syphilis and she suffers from tuberculosis, Whose oldest child was born blind†¦ Whose second child died†¦ Whose third child was born deaf†¦ Whose fourth child suffers from tuberculosis?That she have an abortion? You just signed the death sentence of Ludwig van Beethoven. | * It is not a life. Abortion for ignoranceOne would have to hide tons of scientific information which confirms that it is a life by looking at the stages of gestation. The majority of women who have an abortion really doShow MoreRelatedSatirical Essay : Satirical Abortion1592 Words   |  7 PagesSatirical Abortion in Animated Fiction There are many prevalent issues, including abortion, race, religion, and pedophilia, that exist not only in America, but across the world, that many people have a difficult time discussing. These topics have a tendency to make people uncomfortable, and when brought up in discussion it can be easy to offend someone who has an opposing opinion. Even though conversation about these issues is difficult to engage in, the conversations are important to have. SatireRead MoreJonathan Swift s A Modest Proposal1456 Words   |  6 PagesSwift released a very popular narrative known as A Modest Proposal. 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He appears to be a logicalRead MoreOutline: a Modest Proposal Essay1044 Words   |  5 Pageschildren had the highest poverty level with over 16 million children living in poverty. That is just in the United States. Imagine the number of children living in poverty in the entire world. 2. My name is Alice and I will present to you the satirical styles of Jonathan Swift and explain why â€Å"A Modest Proposal† will lead people in the right direction to help those in poverty. 3. Before I continue, here is the definition of â€Å"satire† according to Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary. Satire is â€Å"trenchantRead MoreJonathan Swift s A Modest Proposal1008 Words   |  5 Pageschildren became a burden. Politicians did nothing to improve Ireland’s situation. These ongoing Problems in Ireland led Jonathan Swift to write,† A Modest Proposal.† In his essay, Swift uses satire to give rational but extreme solutions to Ireland’s issues. Swift institutes the practice of cannibalism of children in his essay to address the issue of starvation, economic depression and overpopulation. In â€Å"A Modest Proposal,† Swift says,†... The remaining hundred thousand may, at a year old, be offeredRead More Abortion is Not the Reason for Lower Crime Rates Essay1639 Words   |  7 PagesLevitt and Stanford University Law School professor John Donohue III created a furor with their research paper Legalized Abortion and Crime. The authors contend that legalized abortion fueled the drop in crime in the 1990s because a new subclass of humanity theyve identified- women most at risk to have children who would engage in criminal activity-have higher abortion rates, thus preemptively executing the would-be felons. This subclass, we are told, is populated predominantly by women whoRead MoreModest Proposal1066 Words   |  5 PagesA Modest Proposal was a satirical essay written by Jonathan Swift depicting the horrific conditions of Ireland and the lives of the Irish people in 1729. Swift writes the satire disguised as a social planner of the time who as Swift satirizes were known to be overly rational rather than compassionate. The author portrays and attacks the cruel and unjust oppression of Ireland by its oppressor, the mighty English and ridicules the Irish people at the same time. However, Swifts opposition is indirectlyRead MoreA Modest Proposal By Jonathan Swift1516 Words   |  7 Pagesand make them ben eficial to the public were denied by the government, sending him into a state of anger with the people of England and a state of frustration with the people of Ireland for allowing themselves to be mistreated for so long. Through satirical writing and appeals to all three persuasive appeals, Swift aims to outrage the intended audience just enough to call attention to the fact that something must be done to combat the social, political and economic issues of Ireland caused by the EnglishRead MoreA Modest Proposal1096 Words   |  5 Pagesmade journalism his political tool. It is during this time that he learned about the power of the press and honed his writing skill for political purposes. He also wrote many series of satirical pamphlets that made him very famous including â€Å"A Modest Proposal† (Hunting, 1967). In his satire† A Model Proposal† essay, he is projecting the idea that in order to deal with the beggar’s social issue in the Ireland, it will be necessary to sell the children of the beggars to the rich so they can be usedRead MoreSatire of a Modest Proposal Essay1331 Words   |  6 PagesIrony is a beautiful technique exercised to convey a message or call a certain group of people to action. This rhetorical skill is artfully used by Jonathan Swift in his pamphlet â€Å"A Modest Proposal.† The main argument for this mordantly ironic essay is to capture the attention of a disconnected and indifferent audience. Swift makes his point by stringing together a dreadfully twisted set of morally untenable positions in order to cast blame and aspersions on his intended audience. Jonathan Swift’s

Critique Analysis Of Beowulf - 753 Words

Critique Paper – Beowulf In the epic Beowulf, the main character Beowulf possesses all the qualities of a hero during the Anglo Saxon Era. He demonstrates his courage, loyalty, wisdom, and strength but are these qualities enough to consider him a hero by the standards of today? Beowulf has qualities that strong heroes have but didnt struggle to get them because he was born with it. He has many adventures, like fighting Grendel and other monstrous creatures but was very sure of himself. He was born strong. (Beowulf, 35 – 37) Now there lived overseas In the land of the Geats, a youth of valiance abounding, Mightiest yest mildest of men, his name Beowulf, But Beowulf being sure of himself showed how arrogant and boastful he is by†¦show more content†¦Like Spiderman and Batman both strong, courageous, loyal and helpful. These heroes didnt ever boast their triumphs. They even hid their identity under a mask. They have pride and honor because they received recognition initiated by the people. In spite of that, they remained humble and down to earth. They hid their identity as superheroes and will just appear if people are in need of help. These are the other characteristic of a modern hero that is acceptable today. Beowulf has many things that the Anglo Saxon viewed as heroism but he missed many things that are important for a modern hero. In conclusion, Beowulf possessed many heroic qualities in the Anglo Saxon era that mere mortals lack - bravery beyond compare, superhuman intelligence, strength or skills and a driving desire to find success. However, he would not be considered a hero in todays world. Drucker and Cathcart (1994) claim: A hero varies culture to culture and from time to time. (p.2) Anglo-Saxons appreciated different things in a hero that we do not appreciate today. Nowadays, heroes are introduced to people early on in life usually as a fictional character, but as children grow older their perception of heroes alter. A hero not only need to be physically strong, but he also needs to have integrity and moral values who acts without thinking his own benefits. Works Cited Jankowski, Connie.Show MoreRelatedTheme Of Death In Beowulf1097 Words   |  5 PagesBeowulf is an anglo-saxon epic that details the life of Geat warrior Beowulf and his dealings with 3 monsters. The society surrounding this epic is one that values lineage, glory, and success. Although these values are perceived as positive, they are often the root causes of the more malicious aspects of this society: blood-feud and tribal war. It should be duly noted that the poem is bookended with two very meaningful deaths. At the beginning of the poem the death of Scyld Sheafson, founder of theRead MoreA Critical Appraisal of: Beowulf and Gilgamesh Essay examples1640 Words   |  7 PagesA Critical Appraisal of: Beowulf and Gilgamesh There are many differences and critical comparisons that can be drawn between the epics of Beowulf and Gilgamesh. Both are historical poems which shape their respected culture and both have major social, cultural, and political impacts on the development of western civilization literature and writing. Before any analysis is made, it is vital that some kind of a foundation be established so that a further, in-depth exploration of the complex natureRead More The Role of the Great Mother in Beowulf Essay1990 Words   |  8 PagesThe Role of the Great Mother in Beowulf Grendels dam is not simply a wandering fiend (1621), a swamp thing from hell (1518), or a troll-dam (1391). She is an example of what Erich Neuhmann in his book, The Great Mother, calls an embodiment of the Great Mother in her negative elementary character (147). Her realms are the underworld, a cave below a lake, both symbols of the unconscious. She is begetter and child bearer, creator and destroyer of life; she nourishes and ensuresRead More Writing Against Death in The Floating Opera Essay1315 Words   |  6 Pageswhich he particularly notes John Gardners Grendel; the recent fabulations, as he refers to these books, require the reader to perceive the errors of their basically sympathetic protagonists (162). Gardners work makes Grendel, the antagonist of Beowulf its protagonist. Grendels fatal error is his profoundest nihilism; to him The world is all pointless accident (Gardner 28); his denial of any positive meaning to the world seems to be no less consistent than that of Todd Andrews of The FloatingRead MoreEssay on Atwoods Framing of the Story in Alias Grace1866 Words   |  8 Pagesrealistic version of the mysterious event. Alias Grace exemplifies postmodernism’s preoccupation with the past. Other novels of the genre also explore the past through a modern lense. For example, John Gardner’s Grendel explores the famous epic poem Beowulf in a new, postmodern light. Similarly, Alias Grace uses the Kinnear-Montgomery murder to explore the societal issues of the past and compare them to the social issues of the present. As explained by Gillian Siddal, [W[hile Grace Marks lived in

Which Allied Power Contributed the Most in Ww2 Free Essays

All Allied Power contributed to making the Nazis power fall by supplied men and fought with honor to defeat the Nazis. Each Country gave something which made them a major contributor in WW2. The Soviet Union lost millions of men each battle. We will write a custom essay sample on Which Allied Power Contributed the Most in Ww2 or any similar topic only for you Order Now They lost the most soldiers and civilians in WW2. United States was the largest supplier of material. They were the reason allied power had material to fight each battle. Britain gave the most navy support . Their navy contributes to blocking the Germans from supplies and helps destroy the Nazis Navy which had help defeat Germany. Every Country has an extreme amount of dedication and support to help the Allied power conquer the Nazis but in my Opinion the Soviet Union made the biggest contribution to winning WW2. In WW2 over 23 million Soviet military civilians were killed. The Battle of Stalingrad was the bloodiest battle in human history, Over 1. 5 million Russian solider and civilians died. The United States and The United Kingdom dead’s combined does not reach a million . United kingdom lost over 450,900 people and United States lost 418,500. Together they lost approximately 869,400 people. I am not saying United States and United Kingdom deaths weren’t important as Soviet Union deaths. Every death deserve honor. I just believe Soviet Union have up a massive amount of its people in WW2. Soviet Union was a big country; it had a population168, 524,000 in 1939. United States had a population of 131,028,000. United Kingdom had a population of 47,760,000. Russian lost 14. 2% of its population in WW2. You may say that not a lot but think of it this way 23,000,000 out of 168,524,000 people. That includes soldiers and civilians. You might still say that not a lot well let try this. The United States lost 418,500 people in WW2 out of 131, 028,000. That is approximately half of a million people the United States lost in the war. That is . 32 of United States population. United Kingdom lost 450,900 out of 47,760,000. that is . 94 % of the United Kingdom population. That is also another half of million people the United Kingdom lost in the world together that makes a million. Now how a million lives for 2 countries compare to 23 million lives lost one country. Think of it this way million out of 23 million, a million is 0. 04 of 23 million. A million is not even a full percent to compare to the massive loss of 23 million people. I believe everyone on the Allied Side deserve Glory for they all contribute to the defeat of Nazi army , but I believe Soviet Union gave the biggest contribution for the Allies Power . If Soviet Union solider and people didn’t sacrifice their lives and fight to defeat the Nazi, It could have been a totally different war that could of lead to a billions more deaths all over the world. How to cite Which Allied Power Contributed the Most in Ww2, Papers

King Lear Flaws Essays - King Lear, British Films,

King Lear Flaws Of all Shakespeare's great tragic heroes, Lear is perhaps the least typical. In the beginning of the play Lear is already an old man; his best days have passed, though doubtless there is still about his person a certain regal carriage. Lear's petulant behavior betrays him, and soon, when he engages his three daughters in the dreadful game of flattery, wherein Goneril and Regan swear the whole allegiance of their hearts to a father, leaving nothing for a husband, it becomes clear that Lear is something less than natural. In the first act, Lear assumes one of the least attractive roles in Shakespearean literature, that of a bad father. Lear at first does not realize that his temper and deep seeded need of blandishment leads to the usurpation of his divinity. Only through rejection and madness is Lear able to understand and change his destructive attitudes and behavior. As a tragedy, King Lear portrays a protagonist whose fortunes are conditioned by his hamartia, or tragic flaw. As defined by Aristotle, "the protagonist of a tragedy should be a person ?who is not eminently good or just, yet whose fortune is brought about by some error or frailty' (Jacobus IIV). This error is not necessarily a flaw in character; hamartia can be an unwitting misstep in definite action or the failure to perform an action (Jacobus IIV)." Lear's hamartia is the capricious division of his powers and kingdom before his death - more specifically, the rejection of Cordelia because she will speak "nothing." Lear's flawed character traits that enabled him to make this mistake were his disrespect of the chain of being, his faith in the substance of spoken words, and his rashness. Lear believes himself a great and respected King; Goneril, Regan, and the Fool constantly remind him that he is an old man who has lost his kingdom, his faithful daughter, and his wits through his own folly. In Lear's whimsical desire to hear how great he is, he trusts the substance of spoken words. He is not concerned with the truth and so he mistakes Cordelia's response for an insult, a non-answer. She will not give him the words he desires because they do not hold the substance of what she knows to be truth. Through his madness Lear breaks down the false illusions of his courtly world. Where the earlier speech is concerned with power and title (Blow winds and crack your cheeks! Rage blow!...), the later speech is concerned with humanity and friendship (Poor naked wretches, whereso'er you are...). Lear's madness can be seen both as a result of his arrogance and as a remedy for it: The Fool's statement that "truth's a dog must to kennel; he must be whipped out." foreshadows the pain that Lear will have to pass through before attaining enlightenment. Lear's madness is unarguably the ranting of a mad man. However, Lear's ravings contain some method in them. As a result of Lear's madness, he slowly and methodically realizes his fatal error, and the corresponding personality traits. Lear understands that the consequential suffering of all his subjects is due to his mistakes. In the final scene, Lear asks who and what he is, and he is told (most bluntly by the Fool) that he is nothing. He no longer has importance to the other characters. However, Kent, the Fool, and Cordelia make him more than nothing does by serving faithfully, speaking bluntly, and loving unconditionally. Though in the end Lear is able to understand his flaws, he is never able to use the knowledge he has attained to emend his destructive attitudes and behavior. That is what makes "King Lear" a tragedy. In conclusion, Lear brought upon himself the ultimate punishment; the comprehension of his personal faults, which led directly to the suffering of all who loved him. Although Lear knows full well the error of his ways, his situation restrains him from accomplishing any sort of change in this respect. As a footnote, it is interesting that "the Bard's patron, King James of England was seeking to unite England and Scotland at the same time that Shakespeare was writing King Lear. That Shakespeare chose to show a divided kingdom in King Lear leading to tragedy confirm that Shakespeare was either a significant social and political commentator or simply a royal ass kisser (Martin, Long, and Tichenor, Side 3)." Bibliography Jacobus, Lee. The Bedford introduction to Drama third edition. Boston: Bedford Books, 1997. Martin, Reed., Long, Adam,. and Tichenor, Austin. The Reduced Shakespeare Company Radio Show [audio recording] 2

Classifying Solutions Essays - Solutions, Equilibrium Chemistry

Classifying Solutions Essays - Solutions, Equilibrium Chemistry Classifying Solutions Types of Solutions Gas Solid/Gas Liquid/Gas Gas Solid Solid/Solid Liquid/Solid Gas Liquid Solid/Liquid Liquid/Liquid Gas Solution-a liquid mixture in which the minor component (the solute) is uniformly distributed within the major component (the solvent) Solvent- A substance that can dissolve another substance, or in which another substance is dissolved into Solute-The minor component in a solution, dissolved in the solvent Aqueous-contains water Alloy-a solid solution or two or more metals Solubility-The maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given quantity of solvent at a specific temperature Saturated Solution-a solution that cannot dissolve more solute (contains maximum amount of solute at which the solution exists) Unsaturated Solution-a solution that could dissolve more solute (contains less solute than the maximum amount possible is dissolved in the solution) Supersaturated Solution-a solution that contains more dissolved solute than a saturated solution at the same temperature Determining the type of solution -Add a seed crystal of solute -Dissolves= unsaturated -Does not dissolve= saturated -Begins to crystallize= supersaturated Solubility Expressed in grams of solute per 100g of solvent Solute Solubility (g solute/100g solvent)Qualitative Solubility description Less than 0.1Insoluble 0.1>1Slightly Soluble 1-10Soluble 10Very soluble e.g. A 3.20g sample of a salt dissolves in 9.10g of water to give a saturated solution at 25*C. What is the solubility (in g salt/100g of water) of the salt? Solute = 3.20gSalt = x _ Solvent 9.10gH2O 100gH2O x=3.20gSalt(100gH2O) 9.10gH2O x=35.2g Factors that Affect Solubility Forces that act between the particle of the substances in solutions: -forces that attract particle of the solute to each other -forces that attracts particle of the solute to particles of the solvent -forces that attract particles of the solvent to each other Solubility in Water -The polar nature of water molecules enables water to dissolve a wide range of solutes -Most ionic compounds are soluble in water 1.Electrical attraction between the polar water molecules and the ions pulls ions from the surface of the solute 2.Polar water molecules surround the separated ions in a process called hydration, and ions disperse uniformly in solution Polar compounds dissolve in water Nonpolar compounds dont dissolve in water Nonpolar compounds can dissolve in nonpolar solvents Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions Solutions of ionic compounds can conduct electricity. Temperature and Solubility (Solid in Liquid) For most ionic solids, solubility increases as temp increases. Temperature and Solubility(Liquid in Liquid, Gas in Gas) Temperature change has little effect on the solubility of one liquid in another one or one gas in another Temperature and Solubility(Gas in Liquid) The solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases as the temperature increases Pressure and Solubility(Gas in Liquid) The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directionally proportional to the pressure of that same particular gas above the liquid Factors that Affect Rate of Dissolving -agitation or mixing(stirring) -temperature increases -increased surface area of the solute Concentrations of Solutions as a % Concentration-the ratio of the quantity of solvent or the quantity of solution Concentrated-having a high ratio of solute to a solution Dilute-having a low ratio of solute to solution % (Mass/Volume) -a ratio of the mass of solute to the volume of solution, expressed as a percent %(m/v)=m of solute (g) x100% v of solution (mL) % (Mass/Mass) -a ratio of mass of solute to mass of solution, expressed as a percent %(m/m)=m of solute (g) x100% m of solution (g) % (Volume/Volume) -a ratio of the volume of solute to the volume of solution, expressed as a percent %(v/v)= v of solute (mL) x100% v of solution (mL) ex.(m/v but applies to all % questions) g:msolute=17.5g msolvent=350mL r: %(m/v)= ? a: %(m/v)=msolute x100% msolvent m: =17.5g x100% 350mL =5.00% [3 sig digs] Very Small Concentrations of Solutions Parts per million (ppm) -a ratio of solute to solution x106 ppm=m of solute (g) x106 m of solution (g) Parts per billion (ppb) -a ratio of solute to solution x109 ppb=m of solute (g) x109 m of solution (g) ex.(ppm but same steps for ppb) g:mNaF=32.2mg=3.22x10-2g mH2O=20.0kg=2.00x104g r: ppm(m/m)= ? a: ppm(m/m)=mass of solute x106 mass of solution m: ppm(m/m)=3.22x10-2g x106 2.00x104g+3.22x10-2g =1.61ppm(m/m) Molar Concentrations -the amount in moles of solute dissolved in 1L of solution equation: C= n/V ex. Molar concentration g:c=0.154mol/L V=500mL=0.500L r:n=? m=? a:n=cV m:n=0.154mol/L(0.500L) =0.077mol m=Mn =(22.989770g/mol)(0.077mol) =1.77g ex. Molar concentration of ions g:n=0.212molFeCl3 V=0.175mL r:c=? a:c=n/v m:c=0.212molFeCl3/0.175mL =1.21mol/L Determining Solubility Effect of Ion Charge -compounds of ions with small charges tend to be soluble -compounds of ions with large charges tend to be insoluble -why? Increasing ion charge increases the attractive forces that hold the ions together Effect of Ion Size -the size of an atom is different than the size of its corresponding ion -in general, metallic ions tend to be smaller than their corresponding neutral atoms; non-metallic ions tend to be larger than their corresponding neutral atoms -small ions bond more closely

The Background of the Battle of Lepanto

The Background of the Battle of Lepanto The Battle of Lepanto was a key naval engagement during the Ottoman-Habsburg Wars. The Holy League defeated the Ottomans at Lepanto on October 7, 1571. Following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent and ascent of Sultan Selim II to Ottoman throne in 1566, plans commenced for the eventual capture of Cyprus.  Held by the Venetians since 1489, the island had largely become encircled by Ottoman possessions on the mainland and offered safe harbor for corsairs that routinely attacked Ottoman shipping.  With the end of a protracted conflict with Hungary in 1568, Selim moved forward with his designs on the island. Landing an invasion force in 1570, the Ottomans captured Nicosia after a bloody seven-week siege and won several victories before arriving at the last Venetian stronghold of Famagusta.  Unable to penetrate the citys defenses, they laid siege in September 1570. In an effort to bolster support for the Venetian fight against the Ottomans, Pope Pius V worked tirelessly to construct an alliance from the Christian states in the Mediterranean. In 1571, the Christian powers in the Mediterranean assembled a large fleet to confront the growing menace of the Ottoman Empire. Assembling at Messina, Sicily in July and August, the Christian force was led by Don John of Austria and contained vessels from Venice, Spain, the Papal States, Genoa, Savoy, and Malta. Sailing under the banner of the Holy League, Don Johns fleet consisted of 206 galleys and 6 gallasses (large galleys that mounted artillery). Rowing east, the fleet paused at Viscardo in Cephalonia where it learned of the fall of Famagusta and the torture and killing of the Venetian commanders there. Enduring poor weather Don John pressed on to Sami and arrived on October 6. Returning to sea the next day, the Holy League fleet entered the Gulf of Patras and soon encountered Ali Pashas Ottoman fleet. Deployments Commanding 230 galleys and 56 galliots (small galleys), Ali Pasha had departed his base at Lepanto and was moving west to intercept the Holy Leagues fleet. As the fleets sighted each other, they formed for battle. For the Holy League, Don John, aboard the galley Real, divided his force into four divisions, with the Venetians under Agostino Barbarigo on the left, himself in the center, the Genoese under Giovanni Andrea Doria on the right, and a reserve led by lvaro de Bazn, Marquis de Santa Cruz in the rear. In addition, he pushed gallasses out in front of his left and center divisions where they could bombard the Ottoman fleet. The Fleets Clash Flying his flag from Sultana, Ali Pasha led the Ottoman center, with Chulouk Bey on the right and Uluj Ali on the left. As the battle opened, the Holy Leagues gallasses sank two galleys and disrupted the Ottoman formations with their fire. As the fleets neared, Doria saw that Uluj Alis line extended beyond his own. Shifting south to avoid being flanked, Doria opened a gap between his division and Don Johns. Seeing the hole, Uluj Ali turned north and attacked into the gap. Doria responded to this and soon his ships were dueling with Uluj Alis. To the north, Chulouk Bey succeeded in turning the Holy Leagues left flank, but determined resistance from the Venetians, and the timely arrival of a gallass, beat off the attack. Shortly after the battle began, the two flagships found each other and a desperate struggle began between Real and Sultana. Locked together, Spanish troops were twice repulsed when they tried to board the Ottoman galley and reinforcements from other vessels were needed to turn the tide. On the third attempt, with aid from lvaro de Bazns galley, Don Johns men were able to take Sultana killing Ali Pasha in the process. Against the wishes of Don John, Ali Pasha was beheaded and his head displayed on a pike. The sight of their commanders head had a severe impact on Ottoman morale and they began withdrawing around 4 PM. Uluj Ali, who had success against Doria and captured the Maltese flagship Capitana, retreated with sixteen galleys and twenty-four galliots. Aftermath and Impact At the Battle of Lepanto, the Holy League lost 50 galleys and suffered approximately 13,000 casualties. This was offset by the freeing of a similar number of Christian slaves from the Ottoman ships. In addition to the death of Ali Pasha, the Ottomans lost 25,000 killed and wounded and an additional 3,500 captured. Their fleet lost 210 ships, of which 130 were captured by the Holy League. Coming at what was seen as a crisis point for Christianity, the victory at Lepanto stemmed Ottoman expansion in the Mediterranean and prevented their influence from spreading west. Though the Holy League fleet was unable to exploit their victory due to the onset of winter weather, operations over the next two years effectively confirmed a division of the Mediterranean between the Christian states in the west and the Ottomans in the east.